Environmental Science, Oceanography, Climate Change, Atmospheric Modeling Pre-Service Elementary Teachers' Conceptions about Wind Abstract This paper presents a study concerning Greek pre-service elementary teachers'(PET) conceptions about wind Note that the first generation may take longer, but subsequent generation on same topic will be almost instant. You should enable essay rewrite and/or Quantitative Research Paper In Environmental Science sentence shuffler feature if you wish to obtain unique essay that passes plagiarism check/10() Qualitative research can respond to many questions in environmental investigations and professional reports. Qualitative research approaches may be used to respond to the questions arisen in
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IntroductionThroughout the literature on research methodology, there is a common divide between two main methodological approaches available for use by environmental managers. In reviewing the literature, we have become aware that '" Peler Ashley is a Ph. Nevertheless, quantitative research paper in environmental science, there are some significant methodological differences apparent in the practices environmental managers use to address environmental management problems.
It is helpful, therefore, to examine these differences, and to consider how they manifest themselves in the outcomes of environmental management as evidenced in the published literature, quantitative research paper in environmental science. To do this, we will use the heuristic of the qualitative-quantitative divide to tease out implications for the practice of environmental management.
Quantitative methodology is associated with the rational and objective measurement of observable phenomena, while qualitative methodology focuses on assessment of subjective phenomena as ideas, opinion and pattern. Within these methodological frameworks, there are many specific methods available for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem management Burgman and Lindenmayer ;Harrop and Nixon ;Conacher and Conacher ; there is no one standard approach to managing the environment, 'no such thing as a standard recipe for environmental management or a series of "one size fits all" procedures' Sullivan and Wyndham I,p.
Is this diversity of methodological approaches to solving environmental management problems acceptable? This must be answered by defining 'good' environmental management. The answer will depend on the purpose of the work Burgman and Lindemayer ;Sullivan and Wyndham I.
In general, however, environmental management can usefully be defined as comprising those activities that 'enhance beneficial links and minimise adverse links between resource systems or pivots and their environments, quantitative research paper in environmental science, and which seek to attain desirable environmental system states, in response to community perceptions and desires' Conacherp.
This article examines the underlying principles behind research approaches adopted to address environmental management problems, and illustrates the application of diverse approaches through a review of articles published in environmental management journals. In this way, we are also able to identify patterns of methodology within the field, and consider them in terms of consistency and influential factors on methodology choice.
Tahle I. Philosophical constructs hearing on qualitative rcsearch mcthodology. urposc Adaptcd frol11 iVI"ykut "nd iVIorchouscp, quantitative research paper in environmental science. Notc th"t thcse "Iso "pply to quantitative rescardl mcthodology. I:c~ca I' £I!. of thc scicnti fic mcthod formed a part of the 'philosophy of science', following the separation of science from philosophy, and is defined as the way that specific techniques are selected in science Ackoffp. Steps in the scientific method typically are: definition of a problem; statement of a hypothesis; design of an experiment and survey; conduct of an experiment or survey; deductive reasoning; collection and quantitative research paper in environmental science of data; and confirmation or rejection of the hypothesis Dowdy and Wearden ;Leedy Ackoff notes that science was called 'natural philosophy' until the midth century, with no distinction between philosophic inquiry and scientific inquiry.
Science now refers to both a system for producing knowledge and the knowledge itself Neuman This system evolved over many years and continues to change slowly. It combines assumptions about the nature of the world and of knowledge, an orientation toward knowledge, procedures and techniques for gaining knowledge, and is evident in the social institution known as the scientific community. Specifically, observations and experiment provide the knowledge and much environmental science involves observational science lones et al.
Quantitative research foundationsIn scientific inquiry, validity is attained by both a critical attitude towards the discovery of new knowledge, and 'a heterogeneous system of methodological checks and balances involving testing, theory choice, and logical and mathematical reasoning' Williamsp.
Science is considered value-free, based on objective and empirical evidence alone; there is 'no place for quantitative research paper in environmental science values or the researcher's personal values or beliefs' Neumanp. Outcomes need to be quantifiable, measurable and dependable Ackoff ;Martindale With many scientific forms McHargapplied science provides a practical approach to the world whereas the theoretical sciences are concerned with the advancement of knowledge itself Martindale ; environmental science is notable in its environmental problem-solving orientation.
Modern science is inextricably linked with positivism -objective inquiry, based on mcasurable variables and provable propositions Maykut and Morehouse ;Sarantakos ; Neuman 2 03 -which concerns itsclf with explanation, prediction and control of observable events Kincheloe Study Junc Qualitative research foundations Qualitative research refers to 'a number of methodological approaches, based on di verse theoretical principles employing methods of data collection and analysis that are non-quantitative' used to explore social relations and to describe 'reality as experienced by the respondents' Sarantakosp.
Maykut and Morehouse suggest that it is necessary to build a philosophical frame of reference Table I before commencing research. Others e. Berg ;Silverman ;Sarantakos prefer the concept of theory construction as a basis. Without a frame of reference or an awareness of where one's research sits in 'the big picture' of inquiry, unanticipated questions arising during the conduct of a study may be problematic, and it may be easy to default to the quantitative model to find a solution Maykut and Morehouse In contrast to the numerical, objective and POSitiVist approach of quantitative research, qualitative research relies on the examination of people's words and actions Maykut and Morehouse Based on either phenomenological or constructivist positions, it draws on the various schools of thought within the social sciences Patton ;Robson Quantitative research paper in environmental science, there is a need to distinguish between terms used to denote epistemological stance rather than method; terms are used in differing contexts, and may create blurred boundaries, quantitative research paper in environmental science, fuzziness and confusion Tesch To demonstrate this latter point: Tesch distinguishes between function and form Table 2 ; Sarantakosfor example, lists three paradigms of positivistic e.
positivisminterpretive e. ethnomethodology, phenomenology. hermeneuticsand critical e. marxism, feminism. post-structural ism investigation; Patton labels ethnomethoc! symbolic interactionisl hermeneutic inquiry, grounded theory, naturalist inquiry and ethnography all as phcnomenological. Porteous provides a useful characterisation of qualitative research as a humanist approach that is most relevant to environmental management. Humanists are 'critical observers of human nature, landscape, and interactions between the two', whose concern is with the 'life of the mind [,] contemplation, rather than the manipulation, of environments and human behaviour [and] personal and group experience, intuition, and inductive reasoning' Porteousquantitative research paper in environmental science, p.
Their approach is non-positivist, hermeneutic, idiographic, and may be phenomenological or existentialist, contrasting scientific approaches by placing human values at the fore. Postmodern research embraces humanist values through its quantitative research paper in environmental science in the humanities and its origins in the philosophies of existentialism, nihilism, anarchism and the ideas of Heidegger, Nietzsche, Sartre and Wittgenstein Neuman McMillan cited in Trumbull 90 provides six qualitative research characteristics: research in natural setting; direct data collection; rich narrative descriptions; process orientated; inductive data analysis; and participant perspective.
Field research forms the basis of research, ascertaining how people create meaning Neuman 2 03'elucidating human environments and human experiences within a variety of conceptual frameworks' Winchesterp.
The study of human beings -surely the core of environmental management -as 'conscious, self-reflecting and creative' beings. involves understanding and interpretation, and requires meditative or reflective thinking; this contrasts the objective study of the inanimate world involving explanation and prediction and 'calculative' thinking Maykut and Morehouse ; Williams 2 equivalent to the research design typology of authors such as Maykut and Morehousewhich may apply to environmental management.
Three examples are provided here. First, action research engages those studied as participants in the research process. It typically incorporates popular knowledge, and aims for empowerment, raised social consciousness or awareness, and is tied directly to political action and is often undertaken by researchers holding environmental, radical or feminist perspectives.
On the other hand, and as the second example, quantitative research paper in environmental science, social impact assessment addresses social impacts as part of a larger environmental impact study. Third, evaluation research examines the effectiveness of, for example, programs or policies Clarke ;Neuman 2 Maykut and Morehousep.
Neuman ;Robson ;Sarantakos ;Taylor a. It is also common to find qualitative data analysis techniques relegated to minor status in quantitative texts on an assumption that statistical analysis is the 'bedrock of research' Silvermanp. Comparing quantitative and qualitative research approachesHowever, both qualitative and quantitative researchers use 'careful, systematic methods to gather high-quality data' that can be quantitatively expressed as numbers or qualitatively expressed as words, pictures, or objects Neuman While observational science is used throughout environmental science, it rarely explains the mechanisms of critical phenomena involved Jones et al.
Reliability and validity are central issues in all measurement Silverman ;Sarantakos ;Taylor b;Neumanand both quantitative and qualitative researchers strive 'to avoid errors, false conclusions, and misleading inferences' Quantitative research paper in environmental sciencep.
There are, however, many key differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches Table 3. While it is archetypal in quantitative research to propose a hypothesis before commencing research, a hypothesis may be absent at the beginning of a qualitative project, often arising during the life of such a project Silverman ;Maykut and Morehouse 'variables' which they seek to correlate' Silvermanp.
The process of data analysis also contains fundamental dissimilarities Goertz and LeCompte A deducti ve, analytical approach is typical of the scientific method, with hypotheses generated prior to commenc ing the study to de fi ne the data to be collected. Data are mathematically analysed to test the hypotheses. Inductive approaches take a different path, with the data collected forming the focus of inquiry -that is, with no a priori hypothesisand the data not being grouped according to predetermined categories.
Inductive reasoning allows the important ideas to emerge from the data. Timing of the analysis phase of a project differs significantly between these two methods.
Quantitative researchers generally commence analysis by numeric manipulation when all the data have been collected, whereas qual itati ve researchers may begin analysis, to establish patterns and relationships, early in the project Maykut and Morehouse ;Neuman Quantitative analysis is facilitated by the mathematical properties of numbers that allow easy manipulation via statistics, whereas qualitative analysis requires 'effort by an individual researcher to read and reread data notes, reflect on what is read, and make comparisons based on logic and judgment' Neumanp.
Quantitative research paper in environmental science encoding of reality via rational numeric symbolism is counter to experiential observation, where real ity is shaped from concrete images, metaphors, and narrati ves Epstei n ; 'rational ity may endanger sensitivity to context, experience, and intuition' Flyvbjerg I, p.
Neuman also maintains that it is more difficult to write a qualitative than a qualitative report because it has few rules and less structure. the researcher may adopt a narrative literary style. Taylor alld Trulllhllll approaches, it is necessary to test hypotheses by assessing their validity or truth, although the relationship of test to theory may vary Silverman ; Table 4lones et at. noting that hypotheses cannot be rejected with certainty, and that the design of a scientific experiment and choice of method may influence outcomes.
Alternatively, Bawden observes that quantitati ve researchers set themselves apart from that being studied.
Session 5A - Appraising a Quantitative Study
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There are, however, many key differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches (Table 3).While it is archetypal in quantitative research to propose a hypothesis before commencing research, a hypothesis may be absent at the beginning of a qualitative project, often arising during the life of such a project (Silverman ;Maykut and Morehouse 'variables' which they seek to correlate' Score 94% Score 94%. This example of a quantitative research paper is designed to help students and other researchers who are learning how to write about their work. The reported research observes the behaviour of restaurant customers, and example paragraphs are combined with instructions for 12/4/ · Environmental social science researchers may use quantitative data such as surveys, experiments and semi-structured interviews to bolster the hypothesis that qualitative research has already laid out. Qualitative research, in turn, establishes a historical and cultural context in which the quantitative data sets begin to make sense
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